Singapore
Culture
Name
Singaporean
Orientation
Identification. The
place name "Singapore" is derived from Singa-pura ("City
of the Lion"), a commonly used term since the fourteenth century. The main
cultural traditions are Malay, Indian, Chinese, and to some extent Western
(British). The different communities do not regard themselves as sharing a
culture; instead, they consider themselves parts of a whole. This is
illustrated by reference to a popular local dish, Rojak , a
salad in which the various ingredients are covered by the same peanut sauce,
forming a distinct whole with each ingredient clearly discernible. The peanut
sauce is Singaporeanness; the other ingredients are the different cultural
traditions.
Location and Geography. Singapore
lies at the tip of the Malay peninsula. It borders Malaysia, Indonesia, and
Brunei. Its area is 248 square miles (642 square kilometers), including the
main island and some sixty islets. The main island is flat with a hilly region
in the middle. The highest point is Bukit Timah, feet (206 meters) above sea
level. The climate is tropical with high humidity and abundant rainfall,
especially during the northeast monsoon in December to March. The period of the
southwest monsoon (June to September) is usually the driest.
The main island is fully urbanized with a dense commercial city center
to the south. Around the city center are new townships that house about 86
percent of the population. The townships are self-contained and have high-rise
apartment blocks, shops, medical and social service buildings, religious
buildings, and schools; they are well connected by the Mass Rapid Transport
System (MRT), which circles the island.
Demography. Singapore
has a population of about three million, 2.7 million of whom are citizens and
permanent residents. The other three hundred thousand are mainly foreign
workers. The Chinese constitute about 78 percent, the Malays 14 percent, the
Indians 7 percent, and others 1 percent of the population. The ethnic
composition of the population has been relatively stable.
Linguistic Affiliation. Singapore
is a multilingual state. The national language is Malay, and the four official
languages are Malay, English, Indian (Tamil), and Chinese (Mandarin). English
is the administrative language and the medium of instruction in schools. Pupils
also choose one of the "mother tongues": Malay, Tamil, and Chinese.
There are various subdialects of the different languages.
Symbolism. Economic
prosperity and political stability are associated with the national culture, as
is the Singaporean concept kiasu . Kiasu means "afraid to
lose" and refers to the wish to come in first in lines, competitions,
negotiations, and so forth. Some say kiasu keeps standards high, but others claim
it leads to a graceless society.
The flag is divided into equal red and white horizontal sections
symbolizing unity and purity. A white crescent moon and five stars in a circle
symbolize a growing nation and the ideals of democracy, peace, progress, justice,
and equality. The national anthem and national motto are in Malay. Other
symbols draw on the distinct ethnic traditions. Chinese, Malays, and Indians
draw on symbolic materials and ritual practices from their own traditions and
for their own purposes.
History
and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. Singapore
emerged as a nation after 1965. For nearly one hundred fifty years it had been
a British colony that was intimately linked to the whole Malay peninsula.
Singapore came into being as a British trade port in 1819 and continued as one
of the three British "Strait Settlements." In that period, Malays
from nearby areas, large numbers of immigrants from China, and later Indian
convict laborers moved into the island. The British did little to integrate the
population, largely leaving each community to itself. Singapore gained
independence in 1959 and joined the Union of Malaya in 1963 but was expelled in
1965. The next five years were marked by the "policy of survival."
From 1945 until the early 1970s, the island had severe housing shortages and a
poor infrastructure, high criminality and unemployment, racial riots, and
communist uprisings. The "survival policy" was based on the
attraction of foreign investment through low taxes, the development of an
efficient infrastructure, a disciplined workforce, and strict political
control. In thirty years Singapore changed from a rough trading port to a rich,
orderly, industrialized society. The remembrance of social and economic
difficulties influenced the development of a national culture with a focus on
wealth and stability and the idea of multiculturalism.
National Identity. There
is no single dominant national identity. Instead, there are complex identities
that draw on a variety of sources and are relevant in different situations,
although ethnic identity takes precedence in most situations.
Ethnic Relations. Cultural
links to India, China, Malaysia, and Indonesia give Singaporeans orientations
and loyalties that stretch far beyond the national borders. These differences
are superseded by an identification with Singapore as a homeland with wealth
and stability. Distance and distinction mark ethnic relations within the
country.
Urbanism,
Architecture, and the Use of Space
Singapore is a green city, but it has a very groomed greenness. There
are two small national parks. Only at the fringes of the island and on the
islets is there rural life, and it is disappearing fast. Highways crisscrossing
the island, the huge port on the southern tip, vast industrial areas to the
west, and the airport to the east create an air of swift efficiency.
The most striking features of the landscape are the high-rise
buildings. This is a distinctly modern architecture with roots in the
functionalism of the 1960s. In the 1980s and 1990s, there was more diversity in
building styles. The typical domicile is a small apartment off the ground.
Ethnicity is not an issue in the public use of space; communal differences are
clearly discernible in the layout of the interiors of homes and certain town
areas.
Food
and Economy
Food in Daily Life. Rice,
fish, chicken, and vegetables are the staples. When these ingredients are mixed
with a rich variety of spices, chilis, coconuts, lime, and tamarind, the
variations are endless. Food is often eaten outside the home in food centers
where food is cheap, tasty, and freshly made. There are many cafés,
coffeehouses and teahouses, and formal restaurants. Forks and spoons are used,
but Chinese food is eaten with chopsticks, and Indian and Malay food may be
eaten with the hand. The three main meals are breakfast, lunch, and dinner.
Most meals are eaten hot. Malays do not eat pork, Indians do not eat beef, and
many Buddhist Chinese are part-time vegetarians. Many people do not drink
alcohol.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Special
dishes are eaten during the major ceremonial occasions of all three ethnic
groups, but none are connected to national celebrations.
Basic Economy. Singapore
has a fully developed industrial international economy. The country depends
heavily on imports, as there are few natural resources on the island. There has
been a consistent surplus in the overall balance of payments. There is a large
degree of state control of the economy.
Land Tenure and Property. There
is a large degree of private ownership of houses and apartments. Land tenure is
firmly regulated by the government and there are government plans for the use
of every inch of the island's territory. Foreigners usually are allowed only to
lease land, but they may buy apartments.
Commercial Activities, Major Industries, and
Trade. Manufacturing is the most important economic sector, followed by
financial and business services, commerce, transportation, and communications.
Production is mainly for export. The main exports are electronics, refined
petroleum products, natural rubber, and palm oil. The main trading partners are
Malaysia, the European Union (EU), the United States, Hong Kong, and Japan.
Division of Labor. About
two-thirds of the resident population is employed. Only 0.2 percent of the
members of the workforce are employed in the primary sector, and about 37
percent of employed persons work in commerce and finance and the business
sector. Twenty-three percent work in manufacturing, 21 percent in other services,
and 18 percent in transportation and communications and construction. The
unemployment rate has long been below 3 percent but increased during the recent
economic downturn. Chinese are over-represented in professional, technical,
administrative, and managerial jobs, whereas Malays are the most
underrepresented in highly skilled jobs, with Indians in the middle. The
substantial numbers of foreign workers are overrepresented in production and
related work.
Social
Stratification
Classes and Castes. There
are wide income and wealth differences, but the country is more differentiated
by ethnicity than by class. All the ethnic groups have experienced upward
occupational mobility. There is an intense focus on education. Good marks are a
sure path to good positions with good wages. In this respect, Singapore is a
meritocracy.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Singaporeans
jokingly refer to their desire for the "five C's": car, condominium,
credit card, club membership, and career. These are important symbols of wealth
and status regardless of ethnicity. There is no national costume, but the
orchid is used as a national symbol, and textiles with orchid patterns may be
employed as a national symbol on formal occasions.
Political
Life
Government. Singapore
is a republic with a parliamentary system. The head of state is the president, who
is elected for a fixed term of six years. The parliament is elected in a
general compulsory election every five years. There are also six nominated
members of the parliament. The cabinet is the executive organ of the state, and
execution of government policies is carried out by ministries and statutory
boards.
Leadership and Political Officials. The
People's Action Party (PAP) has maintained a large majority in the parliament
since 1965, with only a few seats held by politicians from opposition parties.
The road to a political position through the cadre system of the PAP lies in
educational and professional merit as well as loyalty. The other parties are
led by politicians with strong personalities.
Social Problems and Control. The
crime rate is low. The judiciary system is based on the British legal system.
The death penalty is imposed for drug smuggling, and caning is still used as a
punishment. In addition, there are fines or other penalties for a wide range of
transgressions, such as throwing litter on the floor, urinating in the
elevator, and engaging in politics outside registered political parties.
Military Activity. Both
military and civil defense are well developed, and the armed forces are
equipped. Two and a half years of compulsory military service are required for
males.
Social
Welfare and Change Programs
Social welfare is financed through the Central Provident Fund (CPF), a
public savings scheme. Employees under age 55 and their employers contribute a
fixed amount of a worker's salary into an individual account administered by
the CPF. This account provides financial security for old age and can be drawn
on for housing and medical and educational costs. Charity is an important
aspect of the financing of social welfare. Care of the old, sick, and disabled
is in the hands of families and relatives.
Three different agencies provide some social services for members of
the three ethnic groups. Independent social work units also carry out some
social work.
Nongovernmental
Organizations and Other Associations
Many of the nearly five thousand registered societies are directly or
indirectly linked to the government. Among the rest, very few can be defined as
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in a strict sense, but they form the basis
of the civil society. A pattern of division according to ethnic distinction
exists, but there are many nonethnic associations and societies.
Gender
Roles and Statuses
Nearly 80 percent of men and about 50 percent of women are employed.
Women have joined the workforce in large numbers but are underrepresented in
leadership positions in all areas and institutions.
Marriage,
Family, and Kinship
Marriage. Polygamy
is allowed among Muslim Malays, but otherwise monogamy is the rule. Interethnic
marriages are not common. Divorce is becoming more common. The average age at
first marriage has increased, and it is customary for young people to live with
their parents until they marry.
Domestic Unit. The
basic household unit is the nuclear family, which constituted 85 percent of
resident households in 1990. Close links with relatives on both the husband's
and the wife's sides are usually maintained. The proportion of households
without a family nucleus shrank from 26 percent in 1957 to 8 percent in 1980,
reflecting the changes from an immigrant to a settled population. Males
dominate as heads of households.
Inheritance. Traditionally,
sons inherited family assets, while daughters were expected to marry out of the
family. This pattern is less common today.
Kin Groups. Kin
groups play a significant role in all ethnic groups, and people often move
within wide networks of relatives. Privately, kin groups are important, but
politically and economically, they play a marginal role.
Socialization
Infant Care. Children
are brought along in most situations except business and very formal events.
Small children are showered with affection. Generally, children are expected to
be quiet and obedient and may be physically punished for misbehaving. There is
very little free space where children can play and few areas designed specially
for children.
Child Rearing and Education. Children
are thought to hold the key not only to their own future but also to the future
of their families, and education is regarded as extremely important. There is a
range of private and public nurseries, kindergartens, and play schools.
Children start school at age six.
Higher Education. There
is a great emphasis on higher education. Children spend six years in primary
school and four years in secondary school and then go on to a vocational school
or university, depending on their grades (a sure way to higher education in
Singapore) or money (a university education abroad). Competition for entrance
to the best schools is fierce.
Etiquette
Older people ideally are treated with respect, but wealth and status
may supersede age distinctions. A social superior or an authority is treated
with much formality. There are great differences between formal and informal
events, situations, and places. In social interaction, a certain physical
distance is kept, especially between men and women. Food rules of the ethnic
groups are always respected.
Religion
Religious Beliefs. There
is freedom of religion with some exceptions. Singapore has been described as
one of the most religious countries in the world. The major religions are Islam
(Malay), Hinduism (Indians), Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religion (Chinese),
along with a substantial number of Christians of various denominations.
Religious Practitioners. Religious
experts vary from formally installed priests and teachers representing the
institutionalized religions to self-ordained shamans, healers, and sorcerers.
Rituals and Holy Places. The
many Chinese and Indian temples, Malay mosques, and Christian churches are the
main public arenas for religious activities. Much religious activity is also
carried out in the home. There are different "street festivals"
according to the ritual calendars of the different ethnic groups
Death and the Afterlife. A
funeral is a major ritual for all ethnic group. The idea of an afterlife is
generally shared.
Medicine
and Health Care
A well-developed modern medical system consists of private and public
clinics and hospitals. Traditional medical beliefs and practices are also
common.
Secular
Celebrations
The national holiday is on 31 August and is celebrated with military
parades and culture shows at the national stadium. The ethnic public holidays
are divided nearly equally among Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Christian
holidays. The most important ethnic holidays are the Chinese New Year and the
Malay Muslim Rahmadan, both celebrated in January–February, and the Indian
Deepavali or Festival of the Light, celebrated around September–October.
The
Arts and Humanities
Literature, Graphic Arts, and Performance
Arts. A common complaint is that Singapore has no culture, and the fine arts
have a limited public. The government subsidizes some art institutions and
events, but generally there is little public funding. The different ethnic
groups have their own artistic traditions and focus on arts. The contemporary
generation is more focused on contemporary art forms.
The
State of the Physical and Social Sciences
Singapore has well-developed scientific institutions. Priority is given
to technology and applied science. There are two universities: the National
University of Singapore, a full-scale university with all disciplines, and the
Nanyang Technical University.
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